Literary devices are figures of speech that are used in literature to make writing more rich. More importantly, they are used to enhance the intended meaning and effect of the author. Literary devices can be used in all forms of literature.
This includes poetry, plays, novels, and works of non-fiction. Knowing what the various literary devices are and how they work can help you understand how authors practice or execute their literary craft. In this article, we go over some of the more popular literary devices. I also examine how Yeats uses them in "Leda and the Swan" and provide quick definitions and examples of several literary devices.
What are literary devices?
Literary devices are figures of speech used to make literature more rich and effective in terms of achieving its intended effect. They can be used in short stories, novels, poetry, and even oratory. Other names for literary devices include poetic devices, rhetorical devices, or figures of speech.
Literary devices are employed to enhance the sound effects in a work or the visual and emotional appeal. For example, similes and metaphors are used to enhance imagery. Consonance, alliteration, and assonance use sound.
They are hardly used alone or singly. In literary analysis, the best approach is to see the total or overall effect that different literary devices have on a piece of work. When analyzing a piece of work, you should ask yourself: How does this literary device contribute to the overall effect and wider meaning of the literary work?
Examples of literary devices used in a poem
As an example, we will look at the first stanza of W. B. Yeats’ poem, “Leda and the Swan” (1923):
A sudden blow: the great wings beating still
Above the staggering girl, her thighs caressed
By the dark webs, her nape caught in his bill,
He holds her helpless breast upon his breast.
This poem is describing the rape of Leda by Zeus, King of the gods who took on the form of Swan to sexually assault Leda. The poet makes use of vivid and efficient imagery to describe the assault.
“A sudden blow” and “wings beating still” give the impression of a quick violent attack that Leda never had a chance to recover from. Zeus in the form of a bird seems to be doing all of those things at once. The paradox of "wings beating still, in particular, shows this.
Consonance, assonance, and alliteration are also used to good effect. Consonance refers to the close repetition of consonant sounds. Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds, and alliteration is a form of consonance where the first consonant sounds of words are repeated.
Yeats uses a combination of assonance, alliteration, and consonance to portray the effect of Leda being trapped by Zeus. It begins with the word “caressed,” which has the combination of the short vowel "e" sound and the consonant “s" sound.
This culminates with a repetition of a similar combination of sounds at the end of the fourth line — “He holds her helpless breast upon his breast.” The fact that the phrase “dark webs” is used just before this line to describe Zeus’s swan feet contributes to giving the impression of the total entrapment and dominance of Leda by Zeus.
Allegory
An allegory is a literary device that uses symbols, characters, or events to represent abstract ideas or themes. It operates on both a surface level and a symbolic one.
Example: In Animal Farm, Orwell uses the animal characters to show how leaders of a revolution end up being as oppressed as those they rose against.
The best allegories achieve a perfect balance between the obvious story being told and the hidden meaning behind the tale. A reader can both enjoy the obvious narration and dig deeper into the deeper philosophical meaning behind the tale.
Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant sounds in a series of words, often to create rhythm or emphasize a particular mood. It can also be used to match sense with meaning.
Shakespeare, "Sonnet 30":
When to the sessions of sweet silent thought
I summon up remembrance of things past.
Alfred Noyes, "The Highwayman" (1906):
Over the cobbles he clattered and clashed in the dark inn-yard.
Here, Noyes is describing the sound of horse rider riding over cobblestones. In the process, he uses alliteration and onamotopeia (see Onamotopeia) to reproduce what that action would sound like.
Allusion
An allusion is a reference to a known person, place, event, or another piece of literature, often without explicitly naming it, to enrich the text's meaning.
Methought I saw my late espoused Saint
Brought to me like Alcestis from the grave,
Here Milton is alluding to the Greek myth of Alcestis who was brought back from the grave by Hercules after dreaming of his deceased wife returning to him.
Analogy
An analogy is a comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification.
Shakespeare, "As You Like It":
All the world's a stage, and all the men and women are merely players.
This analogy compares life to a theatrical performance to illustrate human roles and transience.
Antithesis
Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or words in parallel structures to create balance and emphasize differences.
Example: In Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Brutus contrasts his feelings about Caesar:
"Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more."
The antithesis highlights the conflict between his personal loyalty and duty to Rome.
Anthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics, emotions, or behaviors to animals, objects, or deities.
Example: In Dickens’ Hard Times, the description of machinery takes on human-like qualities:
The pistons of the steam engine worked monotonously up and down, like the head of an elephant in a state of melancholy madness."
The machinery is described as if it has both animal and human-like emotions and physical habits.
Assonance
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words to create a musical or rhythmic effect, often enhancing mood or emphasis. Shakespeare skillfully used assonance to add beauty, emotion, and flow to his writing. For instance, in “Sonnet 18”
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May
The repetition of the “u” sound in "rough" and "buds" creates a soft, natural rhythm, evoking spring.
Consonance
Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds, typically within or at the end of words, rather than at the beginning, to create rhythm or emphasis.
Example: "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day" (Hamlet), with the repetition of the "l" and "t" sounds.
Euphemism
A euphemism is a mild or indirect expression substituted for one that is considered harsh or blunt.
Example: In Dickens' David Copperfield, when Mr. Barkis dies, the event is described with the euphemism:
Barkis is willing.
This euphemistic phrase softens the bluntness of stating his death outright.
Flashback
A flashback is a literary device where the narrative temporarily shifts to an earlier time to provide background or context to the current events.
Example: In Charles Dickens' Great Expectations, Pip frequently recalls his childhood, particularly his first encounter with the convict Magwitch, which sets the stage for the events of his adult life.
Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is a literary technique used to hint at events that will occur later in the narrative.
Example: In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Juliet foreshadows her own death:
Methinks I see thee, now thou art below,
As one dead in the bottom of a tomb.
This line predicts the tragic manner in which the play ends.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a deliberate and obvious exaggeration used for emphasis or effect.
Example: In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Macbeth uses hyperbole to describe the enormity of his guilt:
Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood
Clean from my hand? No, this my hand will rather
The multitudinous seas incarnadine,
Making the green one red.
The exaggerated image of blood staining the oceans emphasizes his overwhelming sense of remorse and despair.
Imagery
Imagery is the use of vivid or figurative language to represent objects, actions, or ideas, appealing to the senses.
The trees are in their autumn beauty,
The woodland paths are dry,
Under the October twilight the water
Mirrors a still sky;
Upon the brimming water among the stones [5]
Are nine-and-fifty swans.
The nineteenth autumn has come upon me
Since I first made my count;
I saw, before I had well finished,
All suddenly mount
And scatter wheeling in great broken rings [10]
Upon their clamorous wings.
In this poem, Yeats provides a vivid and placid description of wild swans at Coole. He begins by describing the Autumnal landscape, which is followed by the sight and sound of the swans taking flight.
Irony
Irony is a contrast between expectation and reality, often highlighting the difference between surface appearance and reality. For example, verbal irony highlights the difference between what is said and what is meant. Situational irony highlights the difference between what is expected and what occurs, and dramatic irony, the difference between what the audience knows but the characters do not.
Example: In Shakespeare's Macbeth, Duncan says:
This castle hath a pleasant seat.
This is dramatic irony because the audience knows that Macbeth and Lady Macbeth plan to murder him in the castle.
Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is a literary device where two things are put alongside each other to highlight how they contrast with each other. A good example of juxtaposition is in Milton's "Sonnet 1" (1645):
O Nightingale, that on yon blooming spray
Warblest at eve, when all the woods are still,
Thou with fresh hopes the Lover’s heart dost fill,
While the jolly Hours lead on propitious May.
Thy liquid notes that close the eye of Day,
First heard before the shallow cuckoo’s bill,
Portend success in love. O if Jove’s will
Have linked that amorous power to thy soft lay,
Now timely sing, ere the rude bird of hate
Foretell my hopeless doom, in some grove nigh;
As thou from year to year hast sung too late
For my relief, yet had’st no reason why.
Whether the Muse or Love call thee his mate,
Both them I serve, and of their train am I.
Here, Milton is juxtaposing the associations of the nightingale with those of the cuckoo. The cuckoo represents good luck, love, and chastity. On the other hand, the cuckoo (or the rude bird of hate [Line 9]) represents bad luck and being cheated upon.
Metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that directly compares two unlike things, suggesting they are alike in some way.
Yeats, “No Second Troy” (1916):
With beauty like a tightened bow, a kind
That is not natural in an age like this,
Being high and solitary and most stern?
This is a rare and beautiful metaphor where a woman’s beauty is described as a weapon. It is appropriate because the poet refers to Helen of Troy, whose beauty led to a 10-year-long war.
Motif
A motif is a recurring element, such as a theme, symbol, or idea, that reinforces the central message or mood of a literary work.
Example: In Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities, the motif of resurrection appears throughout, such as Dr. Manette being "recalled to life" after his imprisonment and Sydney Carton's sacrifice at the end of the novel. This motif underscores themes of renewal and redemption.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitate the sounds they describe.
Shakespeare, The Tempest:
Hark, hark! Bow-wow. The watch-dogs bark!
The repetition of "hark" in the beginning of the line repeats the sound of a dog's bark, which is repeated at the end of the line.
Over the cobbles he clattered and clashed in the dark inn-yard.
Noyes uses alliteration and onomatopeia to reproduce the sound effects of a horseman riding over cobblestones.
Pathetic fallacy
Pathetic fallacy is the attribution of human emotions or characteristics to nature or inanimate objects, reflecting the mood of the scene.
Yeats, The Wild Swans at Coole (1916):
Unwearied still, lover by lover,
They paddle in the cold
Companionable streams or climb the air;
In this poem, Yeats refers to the streams as companionable to highlight his loneliness compared to the swans. The swans impart their companionship even to the landscape, while the poet remains heartbroken and lonely.
Personification
Personification is a figure of speech in which inanimate objects, animals, or abstract ideas are given human attributes.
Romeo and Juliet:
Death, that hath sucked the honey of thy breath.
Here, death is personified as a person who has consumed the "sweet" life of the loved one.
Pun
A pun is a play on words, exploiting different meanings or similar sounds to create humor or irony.
Example: In Romeo and Juliet, Mercutio, after being mortally wounded, says,
Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man.
These are the words of a dying man. The word grave here refers both to the physical grave and its meaning as "a serious condition."
Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things using "like" or "as." A simile works only if it turns out that there is a deeper significance to the two unlike things being compared. Let’s see how McKay makes that work in “The Harlem Dancer.”
Claud Mckay, “The Harlem Dancer” (1916):
Applauding youths laughed with young prostitutes
And watched her perfect, half-clothed body sway;
Her voice was like the sound of blended flutes
Blown by black players upon a picnic day.
She sang and danced on gracefully and calm,
The light gauze hanging loose about her form;
To me she seemed a proudly-swaying palm
Grown lovelier for passing through a storm.
Claude Mckay is comparing a dancer to scenes from his home country Jamaica, which have been bolded. This is because he identifies with the alienated dancer who he describes at the end of the poem as:
But looking at her falsely-smiling face,
I knew her self was not in that strange place.
By using these similes he subtly lets us know that he too feel alienated from his true self as an immigrant in the United States and that the dancer’s face is a reflection of that feeling.
Symbolism
Symbolism refers to using objects or images to represent something else. A symbol is an object, character, figure, or color that represents abstract ideas or concepts beyond its literal meaning. In Yeats, “The Wild Swans at Coole” (1916), the swans are described as follows:
Unwearied still, lover by lover,
They paddle in the cold
Companionable streams or climb the air;
Their hearts have not grown old;
Passion or conquest, wander where they will,
Attend upon them still.
The last three lines let us know that something more is going on here. The swans are turned into eternal and mythic symbols of passion, art, and inspiration.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole, or vice versa. Synecdoche works best when we have enough context to know what the author is referring to.
In Julius Caesar, Mark Antony refers to Caesar's body as "bleeding piece of earth," using "piece" to represent Caesar as a whole. In "Leda and the Swan," Yeats refers to Zeus as the "the indifferent beak" (Line 15).
In fact, Yeats makes no mention of Zeus himself because we already have enough context. Anyone familiar with the myth of Leda and the swan would know that the reference is to Zeus.
Milton, "Sonnet 1" (1645):
Now timely sing, ere the rude bird of hate
Foretell my hopeless doom, in some grove nigh
Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, Act 1, Prologue:
Two households, both alike in dignity,
In fair Verona, where we lay our scene,
From ancient grudge break to new mutiny,
Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean.
Civil in this context refers to the civil disturbance in the city of Verona that is caused by the fight between the Capulets and the Montagues.
Literary devices vs rhetorical devices
"Literary devices" and "rhetorical devices" can be used interchangeably. However, there are subtle differences in the way in which these terms are used. Literary devices typically refer to figures of speech used in literature such as poetry and fiction and other forms of flowery writing.
On the other hand, rhetorical devices may be used to describe figures of speech associated with oratory. The division is not always clear, and there are several instances where the two terms can be used interchangeably.
For example, Shakespeare is ostensibly theater; however, his plays are written in verse. Shakespeare's works provide numerous examples of pure literary devices, but also provides great examples of "pure" rhetorical figures of speech. As a matter of fact, Mark Antony's famous speech at Caesar's funeral is typically held up as a standard for rhetoric.
Cite this EminentEdit article |
Antoine, M. (2024, November 14). Literary Devices. https://www.eminentediting.com/post/literary-devices |
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